A tiny bit-array that answers 'definitely not here' or 'maybe here' in constant time — how Cassandra, HBase, and Chrome skip millions of expensive lookups for keys that were never there.
A user in Sydney pays ~200ms to reach a Virginia origin before any work happens — physics you can't code around. This is how CDNs cheat the speed of light with edge PoPs, anycast routing, and HTTP caching.